Single Walled Carbon Nanohorns: Structure, Functionalization, and Emerging Applications in Drug Delivery, Biosensing and Energy Storage
Keywords:
Biosensors, Carbon Nanohorns, Drug Delivery Systems, Functionalization, Nanomedicine, Single-Walled Carbon Nanohorns (SWCNHs)Abstract
Single walled carbon nanohorns (SWCNHs) are nanoscale carbon architectures formed by the association of horn like graphene structures into spherical aggregates. Their high surface area, electrical conductivity, internal cavities and modifiable surfaces make them attractive for biomedical and technological applications. This review examines the structural characteristics, physicochemical properties, synthesis routes and surface functionalization strategies of SWCNHs, with emphasis on covalent and non-covalent approaches. Reported studies on SWCNHs were examined with respect to their structural features, functionalization behavior and applications in drug delivery, biosensing, magnetic resonance imaging, energy conversion, energy storage, solar-thermal systems, adsorption and sensing. The reviewed evidence indicates that surface modification can improve aqueous dispersibility, stability and interactions with biological or functional interfaces, while the intrinsic architecture of SWCNHs supports their use as multifunctional platforms. Applications in drug delivery and biosensing demonstrate biomedical potential, whereas their electrical and structural characteristics support energy related applications. Major limitations include aggregation, toxicity, reproducibility, surface control challenges and scale up. Future research should focus on controlled functionalization, standardized characterization, systematic safety assessment and scalable production. Overall, SWCNHs show considerable promise as versatile platforms for nanomedicine, sensing and energy technologies.
Downloads
References
[1] Schüth, F., & Schmidt, W. (2002). Microporous and mesoporous materials. *Advanced Materials, 14*(9), 629--638.
[2] Xia, Y., Yang, P., Sun, Y., Wu, Y., Mayers, B., Gates, B., Yin, Y., Kim, F., & Yan, H. (2003). One-dimensional nanostructures: Synthesis, characterization, and applications. *Advanced Materials, 15*(5), 353--389.
[3] Stein, A. (2003). Advances in microporous and mesoporous solids-Highlights of recent progress. *Advanced Materials, 15*, 763--775.
[4] Hamley, I. W. (2003). Nanotechnology with soft materials. *Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 42*, 1692--1712.
[5] Kroto, H. W., Heath, J. R., O'Brien, S. C., Curl, R. F., & Smalley, R. E. (1985). C60: Buckminsterfullerene. *Nature, 318*, 162--163.
[6] Iijima, S. (1991). Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. *Nature, 354*, 56--58.
[7] Iijima, S., & Ichihashi, T. (1993). Single-shell carbon nanotubes of 1-nm diameter. *Nature, 363*, 603--605.
[8] Ugarte, D. (1992). Curling and closure of graphitic networks under electron-beam irradiation. *Nature, 359*, 707--709.
[9] Krishnan, A., Dujardin, E., Treacy, M. M. J., Hugdahl, J., Lynum, S., & Ebbesen, T. W. (1997). Graphitic cones and the nucleation of curved carbon surfaces. *Nature, 388*, 451--454.
[10] Iijima, S., Wakabayashi, T., & Achiba, Y. (1996). Structures of carbon soot prepared by laser ablation. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry, 100*, 5839--5843.
[11] Iijima, S., Yudasaka, M., Yamada, R., Bandow, S., Suenaga, K., Kokai, F., & Takahashi, K. (1999). Nano-aggregates of single-walled graphitic carbon nanohorns. *Chemical Physics Letters, 309*, 165--170.
[12] Kasuya, D., Yudasaka, M., Takahashi, K., Kokai, F., & Iijima, S. (2002). Selective production of single-wall carbon nanohorn aggregates and their formation mechanism. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 106*(19), 4947--4951. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp020387n
[13] Azami, T., Kasuya, D., Yoshitake, T., Kubo, Y., Yudasaka, M., Ichihashi, T., & Iijima, S. (2007). Production of small single-wall carbon nanohorns by CO2 laser ablation of graphite in Ne-gas atmosphere. *Carbon, 45*, 1364--1369.
[14] Ikeda, M., Takikawa, H., Tahara, T., Fujimura, Y., Kato, M., Tanaka, K., Itoh, S., & Sakakibara, T. (2002). Preparation of carbon nanohorn aggregates by cavity arc jet in open air. *Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 41*(7B), L852--L854.
[15] Takikawa, H., Ikeda, M., Hirahara, K., Hibi, Y., Tao, Y., Ruiz, P. A., Sakakibara, T., Itoh, S., & Iijima, S. (2002). Fabrication of single-walled carbon nanotubes and nanohorns by means of a torch arc in open air. *Physica B: Condensed Matter, 323*, 277--279.
[16] Yamaguchi, T., Bandow, S., & Iijima, S. (2004). Synthesis of carbon nanohorn particles by simple pulsed arc discharge ignited between pre-heated carbon rods. *Chemical Physics Letters, 389*, 181--185.
[17] Sano, N., Nakano, J., & Kanki, T. (2004). Synthesis of single-walled carbon nanotubes with nanohorns by arc in liquid nitrogen. *Carbon, 42*, 686--688.
[18] Sano, N. (2004). Low-cost synthesis of single-walled carbon nanohorns using the arc in water method with gas injection. *Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 37*, L17--L20.
[19] Sano, N., Kimura, Y., & Suzuki, T. (2008). Synthesis of carbon nanohorns by gas-injected arc-in-water method and application to catalyst-support for polymer electrolyte fuel cell electrodes. *Journal of Materials Chemistry, 18*, 1555--1560.
[20] Mishra, M., Sharma, M., Dubey, R., Kumari, P., Ranjan, V., & Pandey, J. (2021). Green synthesis interventions of pharmaceutical industries for sustainable development. *Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry*, *4*, Article 100174.
[21] Melgar-Lesmes, P., Luquero, A., Parra-Robert, M., Mora, A., Ribera, J., Edelman, E. R., & Jiménez, W. (2018). Graphene--dendrimer nanostars for targeted macrophage overexpression of metalloproteinase 9 and hepatic fibrosis precision therapy. *Nano Letters, 18*(9), 5839--5845. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b02498
[22] Utsumi, S., Miyawaki, J., Tanaka, H., Hattori, Y., Itoi, T., Ichikuni, N., Kanoh, H., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Kaneko, K. (2005). Opening mechanism of internal nanoporosity of single-wall carbon nanohorn. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 109*, 14319--14324.
[23] Bandow, S., Rao, A. M., Sumanasekera, G. U., Eklund, P. C., Kokai, F., Takahashi, K., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2000). Evidence for anomalously small charge transfer in doped single-wall carbon nanohorn aggregates with Li, K and Br. *Applied Physics A, 71*, 561--564.
[24] Bandow, S., Kokai, F., Takahashi, K., Yudasaka, M., Qin, L. C., & Iijima, S. (2000). Interlayer spacing anomaly of single-wall carbon nanohorn aggregate. *Chemical Physics Letters, 321*, 514--519.
[25] Murata, K., Kaneko, K., Kokai, F., Takahashi, K., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2000). Pore structure of single-wall carbon nanohorn aggregates. *Chemical Physics Letters, 331*, 14--20.
[26] Murata, K., Kaneko, K., Steele, W. A., Kokai, F., Takahashi, K., Kasuya, D., Hirahara, K., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2001). Molecular potential structures of heat-treated single-wall carbon nanohorn assemblies. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 105*, 10210--10216.
[27] Murata, K., Kaneko, K., Steele, W. A., Kokai, F., Takahashi, K., Kasuya, D., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2001). Porosity evaluation of intrinsic intraparticle nanopores of single-wall carbon nanohorn. *Nano Letters, 1*, 197--199.
[28] Murata, K., Hirahara, K., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., Kasuya, D., & Kaneko, K. (2002). Nanowindow-induced molecular sieving effect in a single-wall carbon nanohorn. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 106*, 12668--12669.
[29] Fan, J., Yudasaka, M., Miyawaki, J., Ajima, K., Murata, K., & Iijima, S. (2006). Control of hole opening in single-wall carbon nanotubes and single-wall carbon nanohorns using oxygen. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 110*, 1587--1591.
[30] Bekyarova, E., Hanzawa, Y., Kaneko, K., Silvestre-Albero, J., Sepúlveda-Escribano, A., Rodríguez-Reinoso, F., Kasuya, D., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2002). Cluster-mediated filling of water vapor in intratube and interstitial nanospaces of single-wall carbon nanohorns. *Chemical Physics Letters, 366*, 463--468.
[31] Miyawaki, J., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2004). Solvent effects on hole-edge structure for single-wall carbon nanotubes and single-wall carbon nanohorns. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 108*, 10732--10735.
[32] Bekyarova, E., Kaneko, K., Yudasaka, M., Murata, K., Kasuya, D., & Iijima, S. (2002). Micropore development and structure rearrangement of single-wall carbon nanohorn assemblies by compression. *Advanced Materials, 14*, 973--975.
[33] Yang, C. M., Kasuya, D., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Kaneko, K. (2004). Microporosity development of single-wall carbon nanohorn with chemically induced coalescence of the assembly structure. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 108*, 17775--17782.
[34] Yang, C. M., Noguchi, H., Murata, K., Yudasaka, M., Hashimoto, A., Iijima, S., & Kaneko, K. (2005). Highly ultramicroporous single-walled carbon nanohorn assemblies. *Advanced Materials, 17*, 866--870.
[35] Yuge, R., Ichihashi, T., Miyawaki, J., Yoshitake, T., Iijima, S., & Yudasaka, M. (2009). Hidden caves in an aggregate of single-wall carbon nanohorns founded by using Gd2O3 probes. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 113*, 2741--2744.
[36] Miyawaki, J., Yuge, R., Kawai, T., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2007). Evidence of thermal closing of atomic vacancy holes in single-wall carbon nanohorns. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 111*, 1553--1555.
[37] Fan, J., Yuge, R., Miyawaki, J. R., Kawai, T., Iijima, S., & Yudasaka, M. (2008). Close-open-close evolution of holes at the tips of conical graphenes of single-wall carbon nanohorns. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112*, 8600--8603.
[38] Tagmatarchis, N., Maigne, A., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2006). Functionalization of carbon nanohorns with azomethine ylides: Towards solubility enhancement and electron-transfer processes. *Small, 2*, 490--494.
[39] Pagona, G., Rotas, G., Petsalakis, I. D., Theodorakopoulos, G., Fan, J., Maigne, A., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2007). Soluble functionalized carbon nanohorns. *Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 7*, 3468--3472.
[40] Cioffi, C., Campidelli, S., Brunetti, F. G., Meneghetti, M., & Prato, M. (2006). Functionalisation of carbon nanohorns. *Chemical Communications*, 2129--2131.
[41] Petsalakis, I. D., Pagona, G., Theodorakopoulos, G., Tagmatarchis, N., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2006). Unbalanced strain-directed functionalization of carbon nanohorns: A theoretical investigation based on complementary methods. *Chemical Physics Letters, 429*, 194--198.
[42] Cioffi, C., Campidelli, S., Sooambar, C., Marcaccio, M., Marcolongo, G., Meneghetti, M., Paolucci, D., Paolucci, F., Ehli, C., Rahman, G. M. A., Sgobba, V., Guldi, D., & Prato, M. (2007). Synthesis, characterization, and photoinduced electron transfer in functionalized single wall carbon nanohorns. *Journal of the American Chemical Society, 129*, 3938--3945.
[43] Mountrichis, G., Pispas, S., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2007). Grafting living polymers onto carbon nanohorns. *Chemistry – A European Journal, 13*, 7595--7599.
[44] Mountrichis, G., Tagmatarchis, N., & Pispas, S. (2009). Functionalization of carbon nanohorns with polyethylene oxide: Synthesis and incorporation in a polymer matrix. *Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 9*, 3775--3779.
[45] Pagona, G., Karousis, N., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2008). Aryl diazonium functionalization of carbon nanohorns. *Carbon, 46*, 604--610.
[46] Rubio, N., Herrero, A., Meneghetti, M., Diaz-Ortiz, A., Schiavon, M., Prato, M., & Vazquez, E. (2009). Efficient functionalization of carbon nanohorns via microwave irradiation. *Journal of Materials Chemistry, 19*, 4407--4413.
[47] Pagona, G., Tagmatarchis, N., Fan, J., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2006). Cone-end functionalization of carbon nanohorns. *Chemistry of Materials, 18*, 3918--3920.
[48] Pagona, G., Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Araki, Y., Fan, J., Tagmatarchis, N., Charalambidis, G., Coutsolelos, A. G., Boitrel, B., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Ito, O. (2007). Covalent functionalization of carbon nanohorns with porphyrins: Nanohybrid formation and photoinduced electron and energy transfer. *Advanced Functional Materials, 17*, 1705--1711.
[49] Pagona, G., Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Hasobe, T., Charalambidis, G., Coutsolelos, A. G., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2008). Characterization and photoelectrochemical properties of nanostructured thin film composed of carbon nanohorns covalently functionalized with porphyrins. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112*, 15735--15741.
[50] Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Pagona, G., Fan, J., Tagmatarchis, N., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., Araki, Y., & Ito, O. (2007). Photoinduced electron-transfer processes of carbon nanohorns with covalently linked pyrene chromophores: Charge separation and electro-migration systems. *Journal of Materials Chemistry, 17*, 2540--2546.
[51] Zhu, J., Yudasaka, M., Zhang, M. F., Kasuya, D., & Iijima, S. (2003). A surface modification approach to the patterned assembly of single-walled carbon nanomaterials. *Nano Letters, 3*, 1239--1243.
[52] Zhu, J., Kase, D., Shiba, K., Kasuya, D., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2003). Binary nanomaterials based on nanocarbons: A case for probing carbon nanohorns' biorecognition properties. *Nano Letters, 3*, 1033--1036.
[53] Pagona, G., Araki, Y., Fan, J., Tagmatarchis, N., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Ito, O. (2006). Electronic interplay on illuminated aqueous carbon nanohorn porphyrin ensembles. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 110*, 20729--20732.
[54] Pagona, G., Fan, J., Maigne, A., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2007). Aqueous carbon nanohorn-pyrene porphyrin nanoensembles: Controlling charge-transfer interactions. *Diamond and Related Materials, 16*, 1150--1153.
[55] Pagona, G., Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Maigne, A., Fan, J., Papavassiliou, G. C., Petsalakis, I. D., Steele, B. R., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., Tagmatarchis, N., & Ito, O. (2007). Photoinduced electron transfer on aqueous carbon nanohorn-pyrene tetrathiafulvalent architectures. *Chemistry – A European Journal, 13*, 7600--7607.
[56] Mountrichas, G., Ichihashi, T., Pispas, S., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2009). Solubilization of carbon nanohorns by block polyelectrolyte wrapping and templated formation of gold nanoparticles. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 113*, 5444--5449.
[57] Murata, K., Kaneko, K., Kanoh, H., Kasuya, D., Takahashi, K., Kokai, F., Yudasaka, M., & Iijima, S. (2002). Adsorption mechanism of supercritical hydrogen in internal and interstitial nanospaces of single-wall carbon nanohorn assembly. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 106*, 11132--11138.
[58] Bekyarova, E., Murata, K., Yudasaka, M., Kasuya, D., Iijima, S., Tanaka, H., Kanoh, H., & Kaneko, K. (2003). Single-wall nanostructured carbon for methane storage. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 107*, 4681--4684.
[59] Bekyarova, E., Hashimoto, A., Yudasaka, M., Hattori, Y., Murata, K., Kanoh, H., Kasuya, D., Iijima, S., & Kaneko, K. (2005). Palladium nanoclusters deposited on single-walled carbon nanohorns. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 109*, 3711--3714.
[60] Sano, N., & Ukita, S. (2006). One-step synthesis of Pt-loaded carbon nanohorns for fuel cell electrode by arc plasma in liquid nitrogen. *Materials Chemistry and Physics, 99*, 447--450.
[61] Yang, C. M., Kim, Y. J., Endo, M., Kanoh, H., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Kaneko, K. (2007). Nanowindow-regulated specific capacitance of supercapacitor electrodes using single-wall carbon nanohorns. *Journal of the American Chemical Society, 129*, 20--21.
[62] Sano, N., Kinugasa, M., Otsuki, F., & Suehiro, J. (2007). Gas sensor using single-wall carbon nanohorns. *Advanced Powder Technology, 18*, 455--466.
[63] Zhu, S. Y., Fan, L. S., Liu, X. Q., Shi, L. H., Li, H. J., Han, S., & Xu, G. B. (2008). Determination of concentrated hydrogen peroxide at single-walled carbon nanohorn paste electrode. *Electrochemistry Communications, 10*, 695--698.
[64] Murakami, T., Ajima, K., Miyawaki, J., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Shiba, K. (2004). Drug-loaded carbon nanohorns: Adsorption and release of dexamethasone in vitro. *Molecular Pharmaceutics, 1*, 399--405.
[65] Ajima, K., Yudasaka, M., Murakami, T., Maigne, A., Shiba, K., & Iijima, S. (2005). Carbon nanohorns as anticancer drug carriers. *Molecular Pharmaceutics, 2*, 475--480.
[66] Miyawaki, J., Yudasaka, M., Imai, H., Yorimitsu, H., Isobe, K., Nakamura, E., & Iijima, S. (2006). Synthesis of ultrafine Gd2O3 nanoparticles inside single-wall carbon nanohorns. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 110*, 5179--5181.
[67] Miyawaki, J., Yudasaka, M., Imai, H., Yorimitsu, H., Isobe, H., Nakamura, E., & Iijima, S. (2006). In vivo magnetic resonance imaging of single-walled carbon nanohorns by labeling with magnetite nanoparticles. *Advanced Materials, 18*, 1010--1014.
[68] Liu, X. Q., Shi, L. H., Niu, W. X., Li, H. J., & Xu, G. B. (2008). Amperometric glucose biosensor based on single-walled carbon nanohorns. *Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 23*, 1887--1890.
[69] Shi, L. H., Liu, X. Q., Niu, W. X., Li, H. J., Han, S., Chen, J. A., & Xu, G. B. (2009). Hydrogen peroxide biosensor based on direct electrochemistry of soybean peroxidase immobilized on single-walled carbon nanohorn modified electrode. *Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 24*, 1159--1163.
[70] Liu, X., Li, H., Wang, F., Zhu, S., Wang, Y., & Xu, G. (2010). Functionalized single-walled carbon nanohorns for electrochemical biosensing. *Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 25*(10), 2194--2199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2010.02.027
[71] Zhu, S. Y., Li, H. J., Niu, W. X., & Xu, G. B. (2009). Simultaneous electrochemical determination of uric acid, dopamine, and ascorbic acid at single-walled carbon nanohorn modified glassy carbon electrode. *Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 25*, 940--943.
[72] Shao, Y., Yin, G., & Gao, Y. (2007). Understanding and approaches for the durability issues of Pt-based catalysts for PEM fuel cell. *Journal of Power Sources, 171*, 558--566.
[73] Debe, M. K. (2012). Electrocatalyst approaches and challenges for automotive fuel cells. *Nature, 486*, 43--51.
[74] Yoshitake, T., Shimakawa, Y., Kuroshima, S., Kimura, H., Ichihashi, T., Kubo, Y., Kasuya, D., Takahashi, K., Kokai, F., & Yudasaka, M. (2002). Preparation of fine platinum catalyst supported on single-wall carbon nanohorns for fuel cell application. *Physica B: Condensed Matter, 323*, 124--126.
[75] Sano, N., & Ukita, S. I. (2006). One-step synthesis of Pt-supported carbon nanohorns for fuel cell electrode by arc plasma in liquid nitrogen. *Materials Chemistry and Physics, 99*, 447--450.
[76] Guldi, D. M., & Sgobba, V. (2011). Carbon nanostructures for solar energy conversion schemes. *Chemical Communications, 47*, 606--610.
[77] Hasobe, T., & Sakai, H. (2011). Molecular nanoarchitectures composed of porphyrins and carbon nanomaterials for light energy conversion. *Journal of Porphyrins and Phthalocyanines, 15*, 301--311.
[78] Cruz, R., Brandão, L., & Mendes, A. (2013). Use of single-wall carbon nanohorns as counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells. *International Journal of Energy Research, 37*, 1498--1508.
[79] Pandey, J. K., et al. (2022). A study of photovoltaic monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panel. *Indian Journal of Natural Sciences*, *12*(70), 3778–3783.
[80] Pagona, G., Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Hasobe, T., Charalambidis, G., Coutsolelos, A. G., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2008). Characterization and photoelectrochemical properties of nanostructured thin film composed of carbon nanohorns covalently functionalized with porphyrins. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112*, 15735--15741.
[81] Vizuete, M., Gómez-Escalonilla, M. J., Fierro, J. L. G., Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Hasobe, T., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., Ito, O., & Langa, F. (2010). A carbon nanohorn-porphyrin supramolecular assembly for photoinduced electron-transfer processes. *Chemistry – A European Journal, 16*, 10752--10763.
[82] Pagona, G., Zervaki, G. E., Sandanayaka, A. S. D., Ito, O., Charalambidis, G., Hasobe, T., Coutsolelos, A. G., & Tagmatarchis, N. (2012). Carbon nanohorn-porphyrin dimer hybrid material for enhancing light-energy conversion. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 116*, 9439--9449.
[83] Wen, D., Deng, L., Zhou, M., Guo, S., Shang, L., Xu, G., & Dong, S. (2010). A biofuel cell with a single-walled carbon nanohorn-based bioanode operating at physiological condition. *Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 25*, 1544--1547.
[84] Wen, D., Xu, X., & Dong, S. (2011). A single-walled carbon nanohorn-based miniature glucose/air biofuel cell for harvesting energy from soft drinks. *Energy & Environmental Science, 4*, 1358--1363.
[85] Sani, E., Barison, S., Pagura, C., Mercatelli, L., Sansoni, P., Fontani, D., Jafrancesco, D., & Francini, F. (2010). Carbon nanohorns-based nanofluids as direct sunlight absorbers. *Optics Express, 18*, 5179--5187.
[86] Mercatelli, L., Sani, E., Giannini, A., Di Ninni, P., Martelli, F., & Zaccanti, G. (2012). Carbon nanohorn-based nanofluids: Characterization of the spectral scattering albedo. *Nanoscale Research Letters, 7*, 96.
[87] Mercatelli, L., Sani, E., Zaccanti, G., Martelli, F., Di Ninni, P., Barison, S., Pagura, C., Agresti, F., & Jafrancesco, D. (2011). Absorption and scattering properties of carbon nanohorn-based nanofluids for direct sunlight absorbers. *Nanoscale Research Letters, 6*, 282.
[88] Sani, E., Mercatelli, L., Barison, S., Pagura, C., Agresti, F., Colla, L., & Sansoni, P. (2011). Potential of carbon nanohorn-based suspensions for solar thermal collectors. *Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 95*, 2994--3000.
[89] Sani, E., Di Ninni, P., Colla, L., Barison, S., & Agresti, F. (2015). Optical properties of mixed nanofluids containing carbon nanohorns and silver nanoparticles for solar energy applications. *Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 15*, 3568--3573.
[90] Moradi, A., Sani, E., Simonetti, M., Francini, F., Chiavazzo, E., & Asinari, P. (2015). Carbon-nanohorn based nanofluids for a direct absorption solar collector for civil application. *Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 15*, 3488--3495.
[91] Zhao, Y., Li, J., Ding, Y., & Guan, L. (2011). A nanocomposite of SnO2 and single-walled carbon nanohorns as a long life and high capacity anode material for lithium ion batteries. *RSC Advances, 1*, 852--856.
[92] Zhao, Y., Li, J., Ding, Y., & Guan, L. (2011). Single-walled carbon nanohorns coated with Fe2O3 as a superior anode material for lithium ion batteries. *Chemical Communications, 47*, 7416--7418.
[93] Lai, H., Li, J., Chen, Z., & Huang, Z. (2012). Carbon nanohorns as a high-performance carrier for MnO2 anode in lithium-ion batteries. *ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 4*, 2325--2328.
[94] Xu, W., Wang, Z., Guo, Z., Liu, Y., Zhou, N., Niu, B., Shi, Z., & Zhang, H. (2013). Nanoporous anatase TiO2/single-wall carbon nanohorns composite as superior anode for lithium ion batteries. *Journal of Power Sources, 232*, 193--198.
[95] Yuge, R., Tamura, N., Manako, T., Nakano, K., & Nakahara, K. (2014). High-rate charge/discharge properties of Li-ion battery using carbon-coated composites of graphites, vapor grown carbon fibers, and carbon nanohorns. *Journal of Power Sources, 266*, 471--474.
[96] Azami, T., Kasuya, D., Yuge, R., Yudasaka, M., Iijima, S., Yoshitake, T., & Kubo, Y. (2008). Large-scale production of single-wall carbon nanohorns with high purity. *The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112*, 1330--1334.
Downloads
Published
Data Availability Statement
No new research data were generated or analyzed in this review article. All information discussed in this manuscript was obtained from the published literature cited in the reference list.
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal Press
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0): anyone may copy, redistribute, remix, transform, and build upon the material in any medium or format for any purpose, including commercially, provided appropriate credit is given to the original authors and a link to the licence is provided.
